GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATED TO SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
The following is a glossary of terms commonly used in symbolic interaction. The definitions of these terms have been compiled from a variety of sources. Specific Credits will follow the glossary. Click on a letter to take you to the corresponding terms.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Abstract Objects- Intangible objects such as ideas or principles.
Act- Studying ongoing action is the basis of Mead's philosophy of the act, and it is the proper unit for social psychological investigation. However, he did not restrict analysis to overt actions only, but also looked for covert action. Consequently, he looked at four stages in the dynamic production of a social act: impulse, perception, manipulation and consummation. (See corresponding acts)
Alignment of Actions- based on the meanings of dress worn by others and our sense of self and the social situation we are in we “align our actions” to others and the situation (Blumer 1969). We act in the manner we think is appropriate to the situation.
Achieved Status- The status that is achieved through one’s own accomplishments, as opposed to a status that was given to them by others.
Ascribed Status- The state that is assigned to a person by other people, regardless of the wishes of or the concrete circumstances surrounding the person. Perhaps the most frequently used example of an ascribed status is one's kinship, one's ethnicity and one's sex.
Back Stage- A term used by Goffman to make the point that in a dramaturgical society, there is much hidden from the view of those who are caught up in social institutions. In conflict-ridden societies, teams rehearse performances back stage and then offer the dramaturgical facsimile of service, quality, or honest agency to those who are in the audience (front stage). In markets, politics, religion and education, such hidden routines invalidate most of the assumptions of symbolic interaction theory about how symbols are shared and call forth the same responses and feelings in all parties to such interaction.
Challenge to Self- responses and reactions of others (see review) that punish or negatively reinforce the behavior that is presented by an individual (see program).
Chicago School- The first school of symbolic interactionism that emphasized participant observation research and "getting your hands dirty in the field."
Cognitive Dissonance- feelings of tension or discomfort that come with an inconsistency in self-concept and the responses from others.
Consummation- the final experience that is brought by the act, it is the end. The consummation is not always the end that was sought for at the beginning of the act.
Covert Behavior- The thinking process, involving symbols and meanings.
Definition of the Situation- The first step in the construction of social reality is to define (collectively) what kind of social event is going to be produced: a wedding, a party, a funeral, a meeting etc. The definition must be shared, or at least not challenged, by all present. This shared definition is accomplished by symbolic interaction.
Deviance- Nonconformity with existing/traditional social norms. This nonconformity is often said to be pathological when it challenges power and privilege; it is said to be innovation or creativity when the gatekeepers of morality approve it.
Deviant- Someone who is noticeably different from the average within some dimensions of social behavior. As it applies to behavior that is generally considered to be beyond the tolerance limits of the community.
Discourse-interaction involving the program and review (see program and review). This is communication that involves feedback from others.
Discreditable Stigma- A stigma that can be concealed from others. Examples include STDs, sexuality and some mental disorders.
Discredited Stigma- A stigma that cannot, or is no longer hidden from others. Examples include handicaps, facial scars, etc.
Dramaturgy- A perspective that was developed by the symbolic interactionists Erving Goffman, that uses the theatrical metaphor of the stage, actors, and audiences to observe and analyze the intricacies of social interaction. Everyone is at once actor in relation to others as audience and audience in relation to others as actors. Expectations that apply in each situation constitute a social script that actors use to guide rather than dictate their performance.
Dyads- the smallest unit of observation and interaction. Sociology begins with dyads rather than with single individuals outside of a status-role.
Empirical - Evidence based on experiment and observation rather than on theory.
Ethnography - The method of sociological/anthropological research which seeks to study small groups and their behaviors through participant observation.
Ethnomethodology- study of the forces that influence how individuals interpret the situations and messages they encounter.
Exchange Theory- a theory holding that people enter a relationship because each participant expects to gain something from it.
Face Saving Techniques- Techniques that establish distance between a degrading situation and the self.
Front Stage- A term used by Goffman to describe the performance that is given to an audience. It has often been rehearsed back stage. This comes from Goffman’s theory of dramaturgy.
Functionalism- A macro-sociological theory that sees society as being analogous to an organism. Each part has its particular function that serves to keep the organism healthy. For example, a function of the poor is to create jobs for policemen. Everything in society has a particular function, whether it is good or bad. Each function is necessary to the whole.
Game Stage- involves learning to take the attitude of everyone else and, therefore, learning how to function in organized groups.
Generalized Other- the typical members of society or culture. A general notion of what the whole think. For example, what mothers are, or teachers, etc.
Gesture- "those phases of the act which bring about the adjustment of the response of the other.”" Mental activity, or "mind," is based on an understanding of gestures.
Hierarchy of Credibility- Social dominance emerges from the transactions between consensus-subscribers and deviants. Legitimacy of the argument does not always ensure a higher place in the hierarchy. Those in socially responsible positions have more power to define what is true than others. Thus, a prestigious, well-known "expert" could offer an idea or theory contrary to the latest research. Despite questionable facts, a large portion of the public is likely to believe this expert, basing their trust solely on his or her reputation. Taking the side of the underdog, however legitimate that viewpoint may be, puts one at odds with the hierarchy of credibility.
I-this is the active portion of the self that is capable of performing behaviors.
Identity- The socially determined answer to the question, Who am I? One's social identity and self-system is made up of all the roles, which a person occupies and enacts in the course of a given stage in life.
Identity Kit- Personal possesions in which one has invested their sense of self.
Impression Management- A term introduced by Goffman which points to the efforts of individuals in a mass society to create dramaturgical images acceptable to bosses, fans, students, professors or others who have social or economic power. The concept directly challenges assumptions in symbolic interaction about the shared nature of symbols and the effort of people to work together for inter-subjective understanding.
Impulse- sets an act in motion – declares a need or a want on the part of the individual.
Iowa School- The school of symbolic interaction that encourages the use of more experimental/replicable methods of research in order to render results more generalizable.
Joint Action - joint action emerges when individuals join their line of action with others, and make indications to each other.
Keyed- The way people interpret the meaning of language from another person.
Labeling Theory- The way that society labels certain acts as deviant is seen as the primary condition of deviance.
Looking Glass Self- the process of developing a self-image on the basis of the messages we get from others, as we understand them. There are three components to the looking glass self: 1.We imagine how we appear to others; 2. We imagine what their judgment of that appearance must be; 3. We develop some self-feeling, such as pride or mortification, as a result of our imagining others' judgment.
Manipulation- executes the act and makes it real in the external world.
Me- the socially reflective portion of the self that provides the social control for the actions of the I.
Microperspective- Interaction theory is a social-psychological approach that focuses on interaction between individuals; includes analyses about the way in which people act toward, respond to, and influence one another. Interaction theory includes dramaturgy, ethnomethodology, some exchange theory, and role theory, as well as symbolic interaction.
Mind- a social, behavioral process in which the person is capable of acting toward and creating his or her environment, or objects in that environment.
Mores- Those rules of behavior that have the character of "must" rather than "should". Shame and repentance follow the failure to observe the mores of a society if an individual has internalized the rules. A form of ideological culture, an elite can tap into this form of social control by passing laws that bring shame and regret upon their violation.
Mortified Self- The self becomes mortified when it is degraded or left in a degrading environment.
Negotiation of Meanings- extended discourse to establish a coordination of meanings.
Non-symbolic Interaction- instinctive, impulsive actions that carry no symbol. A reflex response. For example, pulling your hand away from a hot surface.
Norm- A rule in a society that specifies appropriate and desirable behavior. Much human behavior is mediated by various norms learned in socialization.
Objects- Things that exist in their own right apart from human thought.
Organicism - the theory that the functioning of living organisms is determined by the working together of all organs as an integrated system.
Overt Behavior- The actual behavior performed by an actor.
Paradigm- In the philosophy of science, the word refers to the general framework within which one works.
Pattern Interaction- The way that people are socialized into automatic reactions to words, gestures, or symbols.
Pedagogy - The principles, patterns, and practices of teaching.
Perception- gives the act direction and establishes the external world, which governs the next stage, the manipulation.
Perspective-
an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject, including (1) a set of
questions to be asked about the subject, (2) a general theory or theoretical
approach to
explaining the nature of the subject, and often (3) a set of values relating
to the subject.
Physical Objects- Tangible objects. Examples include trash cans, chairs, and stuffed animals.
Play- activity where the person is both the self and the other, often in children.
Pragmatism- A theory of knowledge which holds that the truth-value of an idea is to be found in its practical application in everyday life. This theory rejects the idea of universal truths.
Primary Group- The social group that is most influential in early socialization. For example, the family.
Program- the behavior that is presented by an individual.
Qualitative- Sociological data in the form of words, pictures, sounds, visual images, etc. As opposed to quantitative data which is in the form of numbers.
Reality- That which exists apart from human thought or action. The problem of science is to rectify the mismatch of objective reality and the subjective interpretation of that reality. As symbolic interactionists, and social constructionists say, reality is constantly being constructed and reconstructed. The problem becomes what is truly reality?
Reference Groups- groups that an individual looks to for ideas on how to think and behave. The person may or may not belong to a reference group. For example, the cool kids in high school.
Referents- people or groups of people that an individual may look to in order to learn how to behave or think. These are the people or groups from whom meanings of the self are learned.
Review- the responses or reactions from others.
Role- the social expectations attached to a particular social position or status.
Role Distance- Behavior by which a person communicates his/her lack of full commitment to the status-role at hand. Role distance is most apparent when one is in a role that is oppressive but, for some reason, cannot walk away from it. The best place to observe role distance in everyday life is in a large classroom or in any mass institution.
Role Making- modifying the norms of a society attached to a particular status.
Role Set- A shared social form created by the interaction of two or more persons. Each person actively creates the social identity as well as the role of all others by complex and subtle responses to the presentations of all those defined as significant to the occasion at hand. Each role set is comprised of general guides to action that are publicly known or taught to new members. All role-sets are mediated by larger social structures such as the class, race, sexist, ageist, and legal structure.
Role Taking- putting oneself into the place of another. Role taking produces a knowledge of the "inside" principles, values, and sensitivities of another person.
Role Theory- Role expectations determine behavior.
Secondary Group- The social group that is not as influential as the primary group in socialization. For example, the characters on Sesame Street.
Self- the combination of the Me and the I. Self is not a structure, it is a process. The I acts and the Me defends the self as reflective of others.
Self-Concept- what an individual knows about the self and what he or she feels about the self. This is a "global perception of who one is" (Kaiser 1990).
Self-Esteem- the affective feelings about the self. The evaluation of self worth.
Self-Fulfilling Prophesy- The process by which things defined as real, become real. Labeling theory holds that labeling young people as criminals produces a social reaction in which they are treated as criminals by others, come to view themselves as criminals and do all sorts of criminal things as a consequence. This process starts out with an assumption that is untrue and becomes true through interactions and labels.
Self-Indication- experience and feedback as the I acts and the Me observes. The Me then gives directions regarding future actions.
Significant Others- People who are defined as important and mutually influential.
Significant Symbol- a symbol that has shared meaning. For example words in a language.
Significant Others- people whose opinions have important impact on the self. Examples may be parents, spouses, and children.
Social Acts- processes of group interaction, and cannot be reduced to elementary units of behavior.
Social Construction- The idea that reality is manufactured through interaction and shared social meanings. This challenges the idea that there is a reality separate from human thought and action.
Social Distance- The social gap separating individuals, groups of classes. Simmel introduced the concept in his work on social differentiation.
Social Objects- An object that we give meaning to through our interaction with others. An object becomes social when we act towards it in terms of the name that we have given it. For example, a date and marriage.
Social Psychology- A branch of sociology which examines the process by which people, together, construct social realities and each other as distinctly social beings.
Social Self- The idea that the self is produced through interaction with two or more people. For example, the self as a mother is a social self because a mother cannot be without a child.
Specific Other- the idea of a specific person outside of the self.
Status- The state of a person with respect to the degree to which they are treated as a significant social other. Without status, an individual is a "non-person". The term is sometimes used in a snobbish way.
Status Differentiation- Many societies define and rank people according to status-roles. Thus gender, occupation, 'race,' age and ethnicity are divided and ranked according to some arbitrary system of honor. This ranking produces much conflict and greatly distorts symbolic interaction.
Status Inconsistency- A concept introduced by G. Lenski who pointed out that some people rank low on some systems of status honor and high on others. Lenski reported that such inconsistency fueled several social problems and social movements. Others have found little or no such impact.
Stigma- Originally this referred to the scar left by a hot iron, but in the modern sense a stigma is a mark of shame.
Structuralism-an approach to anthropology and other social sciences and to literature that interprets and analyses its material in terms of oppositions, contrasts, and hierarchical structures, esp. as they might reflect universal mental characteristics or organizing principles.
Symbolic Interaction- the interpretation of a symbol. Also a micro-theory within sociology.
Symbol- the representation of one thing for another.
Sympathetic introspection- a technique where the sociologist analyzes an actors' consciousness by putting themselves in the place of the actor.
Taking on the Role of the Other- see role taking.
Thomas Theorem- What is perceived as real is real in its consequences.
Triads- A group of three people. Coined by Georg Simmel.
Unit of Analysis- The kind of case, or unit that a researcher is observing, measuring and studying.
Validation of Self- responses and reactions that positively reinforce a set of behaviors presented by an individual.
